The Roman soldier had been provided with a complete set of equipment and effective weapons of offense and defense from the start. Shield, helmet, and cuirass were subjected to continual improvements and made the Roman legionary increasingly invulnerable to the blows of his enemies. The development of ever more deadly offensive weapons, such as the javelin, sword, and various military engines, inflicted enormous losses of men on adversaries.#
2#
THE JAVELIN (PILUM)#
A throwing weapon widely used during the Republic and Empire to halt disorderly charges by enemy armies prior to hand-to-hand fighting. It consisted of a wooden shaft with an iron tip. Special arrangements made it useless to the enemy once thrown and gave it a greater impact through reinforcement of the terminal section and balancing of the shaft. The heaviest javelins proved to be particularly effective against armored cavalry.#
3#
THE GLADIUS#
For centuries the typical offensive weapon of the Roman army, accustomed to hand-to-hand fighting. With a small hilt and a blade about 50 cm long (80 in the third century), it was particularly suited to thrusting rather than cutting, since the Romans held such blows to be more effective at penetrating armor and dealing mortal wounds to the enemy.#
4#
THE HELMET#
The Roman soldier used various types of helmet at different times and places, and in relation to the position he occupied in the formation. In fact this protective headgear underwent remarkable evolution over the course of the centuries. The original and simple type made out of leather was replaced at the beginning of the fourth century by a metal helmet. Special modifications were made to this to render the soldier increasingly invulnerable to enemy blows. Great attention was paid to protecting the nape of the neck, forehead, and sides of the face. Helmets worn on parade were particularly elegant and often embellished with refined decorations and magnificent crests.#
5#
THE SHIELD#
Up until the middle of the fourth century BC the round shield of bronze (clipeus) was the defensive weapon most widely used by foot soldiers. Subsequently it was replaced by the scutum, a shield made up of two panels covered with leather on the outside and metal armor on the inside. The upper and lower part were protected with iron. Under Trajan (98-117), the shield in the shape of a half-cylinder came into use. This usually bore a series of decorations that were probably intended to identify the unit to which its wearer belonged. This shield remained in use until the time of Constantine, when it was replaced by the oval or round shield.#
6#
THE CUIRASS (LORICA)#
Over the course of the centuries the Romans made use of various types of armor to protect the body from blows. Among the oldest types, the lorica anatomica became the distinctive mark of high-ranking officers. Fitted with shoulder plates, it was made of two pieces of metal and leather held together by laces on one side. The lorica squamata, in use up until the late Imperial age, consisted instead of a sturdy corset covered with pointed and slightly overlapping metal scales. The lorica hamata, a corset of cloth or leather covered with mail, was particularly common in the first century BC, but was probably in use right through the Empire. The lorica segmentata, of which we have evidence up until the third century AD, consisted of a series of horizontal plates linked by hinges for the protection of the bust, and shoulder plates made in the same way. A belt (cingulum) with strips of leather hanging from it was used to carry weapons-gladius and dagger-as well as providing additional protection for the belly.#
